The Controversial Term “Human Race”: A Historical Perspective
The term “human race” has polarized both the scientific community and society at large for centuries. Anthropologists, biologists, and a broad segment of the public have debated its meaning and application. While the English and French languages use “race” to refer to a group of people or humanity as a whole (“human race”) without any intention of classification, in German, “Rasse” is often used for the genetic and phenotypic differentiation of human groups. In this text, the described cranial features are not only the result of historical documentation but also based on my own experiential knowledge gathered over the years.
Historical classifications of “human races” reflect a time when science was intent on strictly categorizing human diversity. However, insights from modern genetics and molecular biology have demonstrated that such categorizations are no longer adequate. Today, these classifications are no longer taught because they do not account for the vast biological diversity of humanity and the fluid transitions between geographical populations. Yet, it is crucial not to let this ancient knowledge fall into oblivion, as it helps us appreciate the development of science and changes in our understanding of human diversity.
Nevertheless, in forensic anthropology, it remains indispensable to describe humans in detail, which is why terms like “white” and “black” are still used. These distinctions are necessary in forensic practice for accurate identification. Personally, however, I recognize only one race: the human race.
Bushmen Bushmen: Average between 1.44 and 1.50 meters in height. Subgroups have sometimes mixed with other populations, forming entities like the Hottentots, who are taller, around 1.65 meters. They are slender and thin, with thin limbs and small hands and feet. Their skin color ranges from light brown to yellowish, sometimes even with a greenish tint, and tends to wrinkle. They exhibit typical features like a fat deposit on the buttocks and a sagging abdomen. Their hair is curly, facial hair sparse. Their face is long with a curved forehead, small dark eyes, and pronounced cheekbones. The skull of the Bushmen is characterized by a flat forehead and a prominent chin. The orbits (eye sockets) are relatively small, while the cheekbones are markedly pronounced, giving the face a distinctive appearance. The occiput is often rounded, and the overall skull is small and delicate. The dentition shows no particular deviations. Another characteristic feature is the relatively small nasal bone, leading to a rather flat nose. Their traditional lifestyle as hunters and gatherers is reflected in their lean stature, enabling them to move quickly and lightly through their environment. Over centuries, the Bushmen have developed a deep connection with nature and the surrounding animals, which is mirrored in their spirituality and profound respect for the natural world.
Negrito Negrito of Africa: One of the two subgroups of Negrito, characterized by small stature, ranging from 1.37 to 1.40 meters. They have an inverted triangular facial shape, small eyes, a broad nose, prominent cheekbones, and a protruding upper jaw. The skull of African Negrito is small with a high degree of occipital constriction (narrowing at the back of the head). The orbits are round and small, the cheekbones notably protruding, giving the face a triangular appearance. The jaws are robust, often showing an overbite. The nasal bridge is flat, typical for this group, and the skull profile features a pronounced supraorbital region.
Negrito of Asia: This group is slightly taller, with heights from 1.46 to 1.48 meters. Their skin color ranges from chocolate to black, with bushy, curly hair. They also have a brachycephalic (short-headed) skull, with round, dark eyes and a short, triangular nose. The skulls of Asian Negritos also show high occipital constriction, but the nasal bone is slightly less flat than in their African counterparts. The cheekbones are prominent, and the orbits are round and well-defined. The jaw is also strong but less robust than in African Negrito. Overall, the skull exhibits a brachycephalic character, significant in anthropological classification.
Negro Nigritians: With an average height of 1.68 meters, they have chocolate-brown skin and curly, black hair. They are dolichocephalic (long-headed) with large, round eyes, a broad small nose, not prominent cheekbones, and very thick lips. The skulls of Nigritians are typical of what is termed dolichocephalic. The forehead is often high and slightly inclined, while the skull cap is flat. The orbits are large and round, and the nasal aperture is wide, corresponding with a short and broad nasal structure. The dental arches are well-developed and often show a slight overbite, consistent with strong jaws.
Bantu: This subgroup has a height of 1.71 to 1.74 meters and a sturdier build. Their skin color is darker to black, the hair curly and black, often longer. They are long-headed but with a less prominent jaw and less pronounced cheekbones. Bantu skulls are also dolichocephalic but show a moderated expression of this trait compared to Nigritians. The forehead is relatively high, and the cheekbones less prominent. The orbits are oval and large, and the nasal aperture is wide but more vertical than flat. The jaw is strong but without the overbite seen in Nigritians. The skull profile is generally smooth and harmonious.
Melanesian’s: Their height varies from 1.31 to 1.70 meters, with shorter statures more common. Skin color ranges from chocolate to black. They have abundant, curly black hair. The head is long and narrow with an oval facial shape, and the nose is broad. Melanesian skulls are large and dolichocephalic. The forehead is high and inclined, while the cheekbones protrude prominently, giving the face a broad and high structure. The orbits are large and round, the nasal aperture wide and high. The dental arch is well-developed, often with high dental crowns. The occiput frequently shows a pronounced occipital bun, interpreted as an adaptation to biting and chewing forces.
Ethiopians: On average, they are 1.67 meters tall with a reddish-chocolate skin color. The hair is curly, facial hair sparse. The head is long and the face oval. The nose is long and prominent. Ethiopian skulls are also dolichocephalic. The forehead is high, slightly sloping backward. The cheekbones are prominent, leading to an oval and long face. The orbits are large and almond-shaped, and the nose has a high, narrow structure with a distinct nasal bridge. The dental arches are well-developed, with closely aligned teeth. The occiput is usually strongly rounded.
Australians: The Australian aborigine has a muscular, lean build, typically up to an average of 1.67 meters. Their skin color ranges from chocolate to reddish-brown, with abundant, wavy, very dark hair. They have a long head and a pronounced forehead. Australian aboriginal skulls are highly dolichocephalic. The forehead is extremely flat, almost receding, and the occiput shows a pronounced occipital bun. The orbits are large and wide, with strong supraorbital ridges. The nose is broad, with often a flat and short nasal bone. The jaws are massive and broad, the dental arches very robust. The teeth themselves are large and often show signs of wear from traditional diets.
Dravidians: At about 1.63 meters, they are relatively short. Their skin is very dark to black, with lush, curly black hair. They typically have receding faces. The skulls of Dravidians are mostly mesocephalic (medium length) but show tendencies towards dolichocephaly. The forehead recedes, and the cheekbones are less prominent than in other groups. The orbits are large and almond-shaped, the nose rather narrow and long, often with a convex shape. The jaws are strong but less massive than in Australian aborigines. The dental arch shows high variability in tooth shape and arrangement.
Assyroids: No longer existing in pure form, often mixed with Near Eastern, Armenian, and Jewish populations. Notable features were yellowish-white skin and a narrow, hooked nose. Assyroid skulls are frequently dolichocephalic to mesocephalic. The forehead is high and arched, the cheekbones moderately pronounced. The nasal aperture is high and narrow, leading to the characteristic hooked nose. The orbits are oval and large, the jaws of medium size with well-developed dental arches. The occiput is often slightly flattened.
Indo-Afghans: Tall individuals with a light brown skin tone and black hair. The head is long with a narrow nose, either straight or curved outwards. The skulls of Indo-Afghans are dolichocephalic to mesocephalic. The forehead is high and arched, and the cheekbones moderately pronounced, leading to an oval face. The nasal aperture is narrow and high, often with a slight curve, leading to the curved nose shape. The orbits are oval and large, the jaws medium-sized with well-developed dental arches. The occiput often shows a pronounced curve.
Arabs or Semites: Up to 1.65 meters tall with yellowish-white skin and a rounded occiput. Notable is their convex-hooked nose. The skulls of Arabs or Semites are mostly dolichocephalic to mesocephalic. The forehead is high and moderately arched, the cheekbones less prominent. The orbits are large and oval, and the nasal aperture is high and narrow, leading to the characteristic convex hooked nose. The jaws are of medium size, and the dental arches are well-developed. The occiput is often arched, giving the skull a characteristic rounded profile in lateral view.
Berbers: On average, 1.67 meters tall. Skin tone ranges from beige to dark brown. They have a rather elongated head shape and a square facial form. The skulls of Berbers are mainly dolichocephalic. The forehead is high and rather flat, the cheekbones notably protruding, creating the square facial shape. The orbits are round and large, the nasal aperture narrow and high, resulting in a long and narrow nasal structure. The jaws are strong but less massive than in other ethnic groups. The dental arch is well-developed without notable anomalies. The occiput is usually strongly arched.
Littorals or Atlanto-Mediterranean: With a light beige skin color and about 1.66 meters tall. The head can be long or medium length, the face oval, eyes dark, and the nose straight. The skulls of Littorals or Atlanto-Mediterranean are mostly mesocephalic. The forehead is high and arched, the cheekbones moderately pronounced. The orbits are large and round, and the nasal aperture is narrow and high, leading to a straight nose shape. The jaws are of medium size, and the dental arches are well-developed. The occiput often shows a slight rounding but without distinct features. Overall, the skull appears harmonious and balanced.
Ibero-Insular: Rather short at about 1.62 meters, with yellowish skin, an elongated head shape, curly black hair, and a straight nose. The skulls of Ibero-Insular are mostly dolichocephalic. They show a high, slightly arched forehead, and the cheekbones are less prominent. The orbits are large and oval, while the nasal aperture is narrow and high, leading to a straight nose shape. The jaws are strong but without particularly pronounced features. The dental arch is well-developed, and the occiput is often rounded. Overall, the skull appears harmonious and balanced.
Western Europeans or Cévennes Race: Averaging 1.63-1.64 meters tall, with light brown to very dark hair, a round face, and brown eyes. The skulls of Western Europeans or Cévennes Race are mostly mesocephalic to brachycephalic (short-headed). They show a high, slightly arched forehead and moderately pronounced cheekbones, leading to a round face. The orbits are large and round, and the nasal aperture is usually narrow and high, resulting in a straight nose shape. The jaws are of medium size, and the dental arches are well-developed. The occiput is often rounded, showing moderate arching.
Adriatics or Dinarics: Above-average height at 1.68-1.72 meters, with a beige skin tone, short-headed, a long face with dark hair and eyes. The skulls of Adriatics or Dinarics are often brachycephalic. They show a high and broad forehead, and the cheekbones are markedly protruding, leading to a distinctive face. The orbits are large and round, the nasal aperture narrow and high, often with a slight curve, leading to the typical curved nose shape. The jaws are strong, and the dental arches are well-developed. The occiput is usually strongly arched, showing pronounced rounding.
Northern Europeans: Above-average height at 1.73 meters, with rosy-white skin, blonde or reddish hair, a long face, and light eyes, mostly blue. Key features of the skull from an anthropological perspective: The skulls of Northern Europeans are mostly dolichocephalic. They show a high, arched forehead and less pronounced cheekbones. The orbits are round and large, and the nasal aperture is narrow and high, leading to a straight nose shape. The jaws are of medium size, and the dental arches are well-developed. The occiput often shows a slight curve but without distinct features. Overall, the skull appears harmonious and balanced.
Eastern Europeans: Also with rosy-white skin, blonde hair, and blue or grey eyes. They are smaller, around 1.63-1.64 meters, with a round head and a very straight nose. The skulls of Eastern Europeans are mostly brachycephalic. They show a high, arched forehead and moderately pronounced cheekbones, leading to a round face. The orbits are large and oval, and the nasal aperture is narrow and high, resulting in a very straight nose shape. The jaws are of medium size, and the dental arches are well-developed. The occiput is often strongly arched, showing pronounced rounding. Overall, the skull appears harmonious and balanced.
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